222. The receiving environment forms part of the context in which the risks associated with dealings involving the GMOs are assessed. This includes: any relevant biotic/abiotic properties of the geographic regions where the release would occur; intended agricultural practices, including those that may be altered in relation to normal practices; other relevant GMOs already released; and any particularly vulnerable or susceptible entities that may be specifically affected by the proposed release (OGTR 2009b).

223. The applicant has proposed to release InVigor® x Roundup Ready® canola in all commercial canola growing areas of Australia. Suitable areas for canola cultivation may change over time. Therefore, for this particular licence application, it is considered that the receiving environment would be Australia-wide. The initial GM varieties proposed for release will be suited to areas where there is high rainfall and medium to long season. Further varieties will be developed which are suited to areas of lower rainfall and other season lengths.

224. The applicant proposes that all plant materials and derived products would be allowed to enter general commerce, including use in human food and animal feed, such that GM plant material may be transported and used Australia-wide.

7.1 Relevant abiotic factors

225. The abiotic factors relevant to the growth and distribution of canola currently used in commercial production in Australia are discussed in The Biology of Brassica napus L. (canola) document (OGTR 2011). In brief, the geographical distribution of commercial canola cultivation in Australia is limited by a number of abiotic factors, the most important being water availability.

226. Canola is generally grown as a winter crop in dominant winter rainfall environments that receive > 400 mm rainfall per year. Sufficient soil moisture is required for germination of seed, and drought stress after anthesis can significantly reduce yield due to abortion of seed and reduced pod numbers. However, canola is also sensitive to waterlogged soils, so sites prone to water-logging tend to be avoided by commercial producers (Walton et al. 1999). Canola can also be grown during summer, but only at sites that receive sufficient rainfall or are under irrigation. For this reason, summer cultivation is generally restricted to high-value seed production.

227. Soil nutrient availability is also an important abiotic factor affecting canola cultivation. Most Australian soils tend to be low in nutrients and canola can only be profitably grown if fertilisers are intensively applied (Hocking et al. 1999). Other abiotic factors that can reduce seed yields include high soil acidity, frost and high temperatures.
228. Additional information regarding the abiotic factors relevant to the growth and distribution of commercial canola in Australia are discussed in The Biology of Brassica napus L.(canola) (OGTR 2011).

7.2 Relevant biotic factors

7.2.1 Presence of related plants in the receiving environment

229. Commercial canola varieties grown in Australia include non-GM varieties that are susceptible to herbicides, as well as non-GM and GM herbicide tolerant varieties.

230. Weeds are a major factor limiting commercial canola production in Australia and the importance of effective weed control to growers is exemplified by the fact that approximately 75% of canola grown in Australia in 2005-6 was herbicide tolerant (Norton & Roush 2007). There are two conventionally bred herbicide tolerant canola varieties currently being grown throughout Australia – triazine tolerant and imidazolinone tolerant. Since the introduction of non-GM triazine tolerant canola varieties in 1993 their use has become widespread despite a significant yield penalty associated with the mutation that confers herbicide tolerance. The first non-GM imidazolinone tolerant canola variety was registered for use in 1995, and together triazine and imidazolinone tolerant varieties comprise approximately 75 % of the Australian canola crop (Norton & Roush 2007).

231. GM Roundup Ready® canola was approved for unrestricted commercial release by the Regulator in 2003 (DIR 020/2002). However, it was not grown commercially until 2008 (New South Wales and Victoria) and 2010 (Western Australia), due to restrictions imposed by State and Territory governments for marketing and trade reasons. InVigor® canola was also approved for commercial release by the Regulator in 2003 (DIR 021/2002), but has not yet entered commercial production. In the 2010 growing season, around 8% of canola grown in Australia was GM, most of which (50 – 60%) is grown in WA (DAFWA 2010). Therefore, there are currently three herbicide tolerance traits present in commercial production systems, and potentially a fourth in the future, that could inadvertently combine with each other. The hybrid GM canola proposed for release by Bayer could also potentially combine with the non-GM herbicide tolerant canola to produce multiple-herbicide tolerant progeny.

232. B. napus is known to cross with other species within the Brassicaceae tribe. Of the many Brassica species in Australia, canola may potentially hybridise under natural conditions with sexually compatible related species that include: other B. napus groups or subspecies (including vegetables such as Swedes, rutabaga, kale), B. juncea (Indian mustard), B. rapa (canola, turnip rape or white turnip; includes vegetables such as turnip, chinese cabbage and pak choi) and B. oleracea (wild cabbage; includes vegetables such as cauliflower, brussel sprouts and cabbage) (Salisbury 2002b). Naturally occurring hybrids between B. napus and species from other genera in the Brassicaceae tribe have been reported at very low frequencies for Raphanus raphanistrum (wild radish), Hirschfeldia incana (Buchan weed) and Sinapis arvensis (charlock) (Salisbury 2002b) (see Section 5.6.2 for more detail).

7.2.2 Presence of other biotic factors

233. A number of diseases have potential to significantly reduce the yield of canola. Blackleg disease caused by the fungal pathogen Leptosphaeria maculans is the most devastating disease affecting commercial canola production in Australia. Other diseases of canola include Sclerotinia stem rot, Rhizoctonia seedling wilt and Alternaria black spot, all of which are caused by fungal pathogens (Howlett et al. 1999).

234. Canola is most susceptible to insect pests during establishment of the crop, at which time earth mites, lucerne flea and false wireworms cause the greatest damage. Damage can also be caused by aphids, native budworm and Rutherglen bug during flowering and podding (Miles & McDonald 1999; Oilseeds WA 2006).

235. Weeds are also a significant problem for commercial canola producers and can reduce yield by competition and seed quality due to contamination. The most significant weeds include annual ryegrass, members of the fescue genus, volunteer cereals and a large number of Brassicaceous weeds. The most detrimental Brassicaceous weeds are wild radish (Raphanus raphinastrum), Indian hedgemustard (Sisymbrium orientale), Shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), wild turnip (Brassica tournefortii), turnip weed (R. rugosum), charlock (Sinapis arvensis), musk weed (Myagrum perfoliatum) and Buchan weed (Hirschfeldia incana) (Sutherland 1999), some of which are sexually compatible with canola, as described in Sections 5.6.2and 7.2.1.

236. Additional information regarding the biotic factors relating to the growth and distribution of commercial canola in Australia are discussed in the reference document, The Biology of Brassica napus L. (canola) (OGTR 2011).

7.2.3 Presence of the introduced genes or similar genes and encoded proteins in the environment

237. The introduced genes and regulatory sequences were originally isolated from naturally occurring organisms, which are already widespread and prevalent in the environment.

238. The bacterium B. amyloliquefaciens, from which the barnase and barstar genes were obtained, is a commonly occurring soil bacterium that is widespread in nature and is frequently used in industry (see Section 5.1.3) (ANZFA 2001b). BARNASE is a ribonuclease enzyme that is secreted by B. amyloliquefaciens into the soil and BARSTAR is a ribonuclease inhibitor protein which specifically inhibits BARNASE enzyme function. Ribonuclease enzymes and ribonuclease inhibitor proteins are ubiquitous in nature and can be found in plants, animals and microorganisms. Therefore, both the source organism (B. amyloliquefaciens) and the classes of protein encoded by the introduced genes (ribonuclease and ribonuclease inhibitor) would be commonly encountered by other organisms in the environment.

239. The introduced cp4 epsps gene was isolated from the common soil bacterium A. tumefaciens. Homologues of cp4 epsps and its encoded enzyme occur naturally in all plants, bacteria and fungi, including plants widely consumed by animals and people, and in some microoganisms which are plant pathogens (Kamada-Nobusada & Sakakibara 2009).
240. The goxv247 gene is derived from O. anthropi strain LBAA, a bacterium commonly found in the soil. The goxv247 gene encodes the GOXv247 protein that differs from the native O. anthropi enzyme by three amino acids.

241. PAT proteins are produced naturally by the common soil bacteria S. viridochromogenes and S. hygroscopicus, encoded by the pat and bar genes, respectively (Wohlleben et al. 1988; Strauch et al. 1988). These species of Streptomyces are common soil dwelling bacteria (Lawrence 2000), which can naturally develop the ability to detoxify glufosinate ammonium (Bartsch & Tebbe 1989). Genes encoding PAT or similar enzymes are present in a wide variety of bacteria. Acetyltransferases, the class of enzymes to which PAT belongs, are common enzymes in all microorganisms, plants and animals. Different versions of PAT protein have also been expressed in other GM crop plants trialled in Australia (DIRs 010/2001, 015/2002, 016/2002, 036/2003, 038/2003, 040/2003 and 044/2003) or commercially approved (canola DIR 021/2003, cotton DIR 062/2005 and cotton DIR 091).

242. Short regulatory sequences necessary to control expression of the novel genes have been derived from: the common soil bacterium A. tumefaciens; the plant species A. thaliana (thale cress), N. tabacum (tobacco) and P. sativum (pea); and the plant viral pathogens CaMV and FMV. These organisms are all widespread in the environment. Although some of these sequences are derived from plant pathogens (A. tumefaciens, CaMV and FMV), the regulatory sequences comprise a small part of their total genome, and in themselves have no pathogenic properties.

7.3 Relevant agricultural practices

243. It is anticipated that the agronomic practices for the cultivation of the GM canola will not differ from industry best practices used in Australia. The GM canola plants would therefore receive applications of water, fertilisers, herbicides, insecticides and other agronomic management practices similar to other commercially grown canola plants. Herbicides will be applied according to label directions. Standard cultivation practices for canola are discussed in more detail in The Biology of Brassica napus L. (canola) (OGTR 2011).

244. Growers of InVigor®, Roundup Ready® or InVigor® x Roundup Ready® canola are required to follow the relevant Crop Management Plan, as discussed in Section 5.5. These plans include management strategies that aim to control canola volunteers, minimise gene flow, and prevent the development of herbicide tolerant weeds.

245. In Australia, spring varieties of canola are usually grown as a winter annual crop, with planting occurring in April or May and harvest in early summer. Small areas of canola are also sown in late spring/early summer, and harvested in early autumn. Canola is harvested either by windrowing (swathing) or by direct harvesting. Windrowing involves cutting the crop and placing it in rows to dry. The windrow lies in horizontal bundles, supported by the cut stems 10 – 20 cm off the ground, and remains in the paddock for 8 to 19 days prior to harvest. When most of the seed has matured and the moisture content is 9% or less, the windrow is picked up by the harvester (DPI Vic 2009; GRDC 2010).